A. 求计算机中英文文献！十万火急！
楼主要加分啊！
Computer network virus and precautions
With the new network technology and application of the continuous rapid development of the computer network should
Use of becoming increasingly widespread, the role played by the increasingly important computer networks and human
More inseparable from the lives of the community's reliance on them will keep growing. With
With the continuous development of computer technology, the virus has become increasingly complex and senior, the new generation of
Computer viruses make full use of certain commonly used operating systems and application software for protection of the weak low
Spots have rampant in recent years as the popularity of the Internet in the world, will be attached document containing the virus
The situation in the mail has been increasing spread of the virus through the Internet, making the spread of the virus speed
Sharp also increased, by an ever-increasing scope of the infection. Therefore, the protection of the security of computer networks will be
Will become increasingly important.
A computer virus
The definition of computer virus computer virus (Computer Virus) in the "people's republic of China
The computer information system security protection regulations "which has been clearly defined, the virus" refers to the preparation or
Computer program inserted in the damage or destruction of computer data functions, affecting computer use
Self-replication and can a group of computer instructions, or code. "
Second, network virus
With the development of network and the Internet, a wider spread, the greater New harm
The virus emerged This is the Internet virus. The virus is an emerging concept in the traditional
The virus was not classified network virus this concept, because the development of networks, the traditional virus
The network also has a number of characteristics. Today's Internet virus is a broad notion of a
As as long as it is carried out using the Internet to spread destruction can be known as network viruses, such as:
"Love the back door", "Panda burning incense."
Third, network virus and the distinction between computer virus
The original common computer virus is nothing more than the devastating formatted hard drive, delete system
With the users documents, databases, etc. destruction. The mode of transmission is through nothing but also by virus infection
Mutual of the software, carrying the virus, such as the use of pirated optical discs, such as infection disk systems
The pilot virus and infected executable file virus, in addition to a network virus
These are the common characteristics of the virus, but also steal users with remote data, remote control of the other side
Computers and other damaged properties, such as Trojan and consumption of funding the operation of the network computer
Source collapse of the network server worm.
Fourth, the network against virus
Network destructive virus, will directly affect the work of the network, ranging from lowering speed video
Ring for the efficiency of the network, while in the collapse, undermining the server information to a multi-year work destroyed
Dan. Because viruses and other network annually fraud led to economic losses of over 16 billion yuan,
But this figure is constantly rising year by year. The next few years, the size of the market will reach Security
60 billion yuan. One antivirus software experts pointed out: "Network avian flu virus even more." Such as: "Xiong
Cat burning incense "In addition to virus infection through the web site users, the latest virus also through QQ
Loopholes in propagating itself through file-sharing networks, the default sharing, weak password systems, U disk and windows
Forms bottom of the top mobile hard drives, and other means of communication. While LAN once a computer machine
For infection, it can spread through the entire network instant, or even within a very short period of time can be infected
Thousands of computers, can lead to serious networks. Symptoms of poisoning in the performance of computers
There are enforceable. Exe files have become a strange pattern, the pattern shown as "Panda
Burning incense, "and then System blue screen, restart the frequent, hard drive data destruction, serious entire company
All computer LAN will all poisoning. "Panda burning incense," only more than half a month, a few varieties have high
Of more than 50, and the number of its users infected constantly expanding. Makes infected, "Panda burn incense" disease
The personal drug users has been as high as several million people infected with a few more corporate users is rising exponentially. Network
More on the computer network the greater the harm caused by the virus.
V. network transmission of the virus Features
1. Infection fast: single machine environment, the virus can only be passed from one computer diskette
To another, and in the network can be adopted by the rapid spread of network communication mechanism. According to measurement
Set against a typical PC network use in normal circumstances, once a computer workstation sick
Drugs, and will be online within 10 minutes in the several hundreds of all infected computers.
2. Proliferation of a wide range: in the network e to the spread of the virus very quickly and spread to encompass a large area, not only the rapid transmission of all LAN computer, but also through remote workstations virus in一瞬
Inter spread to thousands of miles away.
3. Dissemination in the form of complex and varied: computer viruses in general through the network "
Station server workstation "channels of communication, but in the form of complex and diverse communication.
4. Difficult to completely wipe: the standalone computer virus carriers sometimes can be deleted documents
Or low-level formatted drives, and other measures to eliminate the virus completely, and the network once a computer work
Clean stations failed to disinfect the entire network can be re-infected by the virus, or even just completed removal
The work of a workstation is likely to be on-line by another workstation virus infection. Therefore,
Only workstations in addition to killing viruses, and can not solve the virus harm to the network is.
6, the type of network virus
As the network increasingly developed, the type of network virus has been increasing, generally summed up as
The following categories:
1. Worm
It is the use of the transmission mechanism of replication and dissemination network, the mode of transmission is through the network
And e-mail, the prefix is Worm. For example, in recent years the great harm "Nimda" virus is Demodex
A worm virus. The virus used Microsoft's Windows operating system, computer flu
With this virus, will continue to automatically dial-up Internet access and use information in the document or the address
Sharing network spreads, and ultimately undermine the most important user data.
2. Macro Virus
Hong virus is a Storage in the document or template in the Acer computer virus. The prefix
Macro, once open such documents, which Acer will be implemented, then the virus would Acer
Been enabled transferred to the computer, and in the presence of the Normal template. From then on, all since
The document will be kept moving "infection" that the Hong virus, and if other users opened the flu
Documents with the virus, the Hong virus will be transferred to his computer.
3. Destructive proceres virus
The prefix destructive virus program is: Harm. The characteristics of this virus is a good in itself
Look at the user clicks on icons to temptation, when the user clicks on the virus, the virus will direct users
Computer generated destruction. If C formatted disk (Harm.formatC.f), the killer orders (Harm.
Command.Killer).
4. System virus
The prefix system for the virus: Win32, PE, Win95, W32, W95, and so on. These viruses
The characteristics of the general public can be infected with the windows operating system *. exe and *. dll file,
And through these documents for dissemination. If the CIH virus.
5. Backdoor virus
Backdoor virus prefix is Backdoor. The total of such virus through network -
Sowing, opened the back door to the system to the user and potential safety problems.
6. Bundling machine virus
Bundled-virus prefix is: Binder. The characteristics of this virus is the virus writers will use
Specific proceres will be bundled with a number of applications such as QQ, IE bundled up on the surface
It is normal to see the paper, when users run these bundled virus, will run these applications on the surface
Proceres, and then tied to the operation of hidden virus, which caused harm to the user. Such as: baled
Tied QQ (Binder.QQPass.QQBin), the system killer (Binder.killsys).
7. Script virus
The virus is usually JavaScript scripting code prepared by the malicious code, prefix is usually
Spript, with the general nature of advertising, will modify your IE Home, modify registry, and other information,
Computer user inconvenience caused.
8. Planting proceres virus virus
This virus is of the public will run from the in vivo release of one or several new
Under the virus to the system directory, by the release of a new virus damage. If the glaciers are sowing
(Dropper.BingHe2.2C), MSN striker (Dropper.Worm.Smibag).
9. Joke virus
The prefix is the virus joke: Joke. Also called prank virus. The characteristics of this virus is itself a nice user clicks on icons to temptation,
When the user clicks of this virus, the virus will be made to disrupt the operation scare users, in fact
The virus did not destroy any computer user. Such as: ghost (Joke.Girlghost) virus.
10. Trojan hacking virus
Trojan its prefix is: Trojan, hackers virus prefix General for Hack. Public special
Sex is through the network or system loopholes into the user's system and hidden, and then leaked to the outside world
User information, hackers virus there is a visual interface to the user's computer remotely
Control. Trojans, hackers often paired virus emerging, Trojan horse virus responsible for the invasive power users
Brain, and hackers virus will be passed to the Trojan horse virus control. . General Trojan such as QQ
News tail Trojan Trojan.QQ3344, there are big Trojan.LMir.PSW.60. Virus Form
A PSW or anything like PWD general said that the virus has stolen password function,
If some hacker programs, such as network枭雄Hack.Nether.Client.
7, the mode of transmission and network anti-virus
Through the above, we can see that e-mail viruses spread Click homepage, users download,
Others implant, implant, and other loopholes through five computer transmission, so long as holding these five
A thoroughfare, we will be able to live better anti-virus network.
计算机网络病毒与防范
随着各种新的网络技术的不断应用和迅速发展, 计算机网络的应
用范围变得越来越广泛, 所起的作用越来越重要, 计算机网络与人类
的生活更加密不可分, 社会对其的依赖程度也会随之不断增长。而随
着计算机技术的不断发展, 病毒也变得越来越复杂和高级, 新一代的
计算机病毒充分利用某些常用操作系统与应用软件的低防护性的弱
点不断肆虐, 最近几年随着因特网在全球的普及, 将含病毒文件附加
在邮件中的情况不断增多, 通过网络传播病毒, 使得病毒的扩散速度
也急骤提高, 受感染的范围越来越广。因此, 计算机网络的安全保护将
会变得越来越重要。
一、计算机病毒
计算机病毒的定义计算机病毒(Computer Virus)在《中华人民共和
国计算机信息系统安全保护条例》中被明确定义, 病毒“指编制或者在
计算机程序中插入的破坏计算机功能或者破坏数据, 影响计算机使用
并且能够自我复制的一组计算机指令或者程序代码”。
二、网络病毒
随着网络和Internet 的发展,一个传播范围更广,危害更大的新型
病毒应运而生.这就是网络病毒。网络病毒是一个新兴的概念, 在传统
的病毒分类里没有网络病毒这个概念, 由于网络的发展, 传统的病毒
也就具有了一些网络的特性。如今的网络病毒是一个广义的概念, 一
般只要是利用网络来进行传播、破坏的都可以被称为网络病毒, 如:
“爱情后门”、“熊猫烧香”等。
三、网络病毒与计算机病毒的区别
原先常见的计算机病毒的破坏性无非就是格式化硬盘, 删除系统
与用户文件、破坏数据库等等。而传播途径也无非是通过遭病毒感染
的软件的互相拷贝, 携带病毒的盗版光盘的使用等, 如感染磁盘系统
区的引导型病毒和感染可执行文件的文件型病毒, 而网络病毒除了具
有普通病毒的这些特性外, 还具有远端窃取用户数据、远端控制对方
计算机等破坏特性, 比如特洛伊木马病毒和消耗网络计算机的运行资
源, 拖垮网络服务器的蠕虫病毒。
四、网络病毒的危害
网络上病毒破坏性大, 将直接影响网络的工作, 轻则降低速度, 影
响工作效率, 重则使网络崩溃, 破坏服务器信息, 使多年工作毁于一
旦。每年由于病毒等网络欺诈行为导致的经济损失高达160 亿多元,
而且这个数字逐年还在不断地攀升。未来几年, 安防市场规模将达到
600 亿元。一位杀毒软件专家指出: “网络病毒更甚于禽流感”。如: “熊
猫烧香”除了通过网站带毒感染用户之外, 此病毒还会通过QQ 最新
漏洞传播自身, 通过网络文件共享、默认共享、系统弱口令、U 盘及窗
体顶端窗体底端移动硬盘等多种途径传播。而局域网中只要有一台机
器感染, 就可以瞬间传遍整个网络, 甚至在极短时间之内就可以感染
几千台计算机, 严重时可以导致网络瘫痪。中毒症状表现为电脑中所
有可执行的.exe 文件都变成了一种怪异的图案, 该图案显示为“熊猫
烧香”, 继而系统蓝屏、频繁重启、硬盘数据被破坏等, 严重的整个公司
局域网内所有电脑会全部中毒。“熊猫烧香”仅半个多月, 变种数已高
达50 多个, 并且其感染用户的数量不断扩大。使得感染“熊猫烧香”病
毒的个人用户已经高达几百万, 企业用户感染数更是成倍上升。网络
上的计算机越多, 网络病毒造成的危害越大。
五、网络病毒传播特点
1.感染速度快: 在单机环境下, 病毒只能通过软盘从一台计算机
带到另一台, 而在网络中则可以通过网络通讯机制迅速扩散。根据测
定, 针对一台典型的PC 网络在正常使用情况, 只要有一台工作站有病
毒, 就可在几十分钟内将网上的数百台计算机全部感染。
2.扩散面广: 由于病毒在网络中扩散非常快, 扩散范围很大, 不但能迅速传染局域网内所有计算机, 还能通过远程工作站将病毒在一瞬
间传播到千里之外。
3.传播的形式复杂多样: 计算机病毒在网络上一般是通过“工作
站服务器工作站”的途径进行传播的, 但传播的形式复杂多样。
4.难于彻底清除: 单机上的计算机病毒有时可通过删除带毒文件
或低级格式化硬盘等措施将病毒彻底清除, 而网络中只要有一台工作
站未能消毒干净就可使整个网络重新被病毒感染, 甚至刚刚完成清除
工作的一台工作站就有可能被网上另一台带毒工作站所感染。因此,
仅对工作站进行病毒杀除, 并不能解决病毒对网络的危害。
六、网络病毒的类型
由于网络越来越发达, 网络病毒的种类也越来越多, 大体归纳为
以下几类:
1.蠕虫病毒
它的传染机理是利用网络进行复制和传播, 传染途径是通过网络
和电子邮件,前缀是Worm。比如近年危害很大的“尼姆达”病毒就是蠕
虫病毒的一种。这一病毒利用了微软视窗操作系统的漏洞, 计算机感
染这一病毒后, 会不断自动拨号上网, 并利用文件中的地址信息或者
网络共享进行传播, 最终破坏用户的大部分重要数据。
2.宏病毒
宏病毒是一种寄存在文档或模板的宏中的计算机病毒。前缀是
Macro, 一旦打开这样的文档, 其中的宏就会被执行, 于是宏病毒就会
被激活, 转移到计算机上, 并驻留在Normal 模板上。从此以后, 所有自
动保存的文档都会“感染”上这种宏病毒, 而且如果其他用户打开了感
染病毒的文档, 宏病毒又会转移到他的计算机上。
3.破坏性程序病毒
破坏性程序病毒的前缀是: Harm。这类病毒的特性是本身具有好
看的图标来诱惑用户点击, 当用户点击病毒时, 病毒便会直接对用户
计算机产生破坏。如格式化C 盘(Harm.formatC.f) 、杀手命令(Harm.
Command.Killer) 等。
4.系统病毒
系统病毒的前缀为:Win32、PE、Win95、W32、W95 等。这些病毒的
一般公有的特性是可以感染windows 操作系统的*.exe 和*.dll 文件,
并通过这些文件进行传播。如CIH 病毒。
5.后门病毒
后门病毒的前缀是Backdoor。该类病毒的共有特性是通过网络传
播, 给系统开后门, 给用户带来安全隐患。
6.捆绑机病毒
捆绑机病毒的前缀是: Binder。这类病毒的特性是病毒作者会使用
特定的捆绑程序将病毒与一些应用程序如QQ、IE 捆绑起来, 表面上
看是正常文件, 当用户运行这些捆绑病毒时, 会表面上运行这些应用
程序, 然后隐藏运行捆绑在一起的病毒, 从而给用户造成危害。如: 捆
绑QQ(Binder.QQPass.QQBin) 、系统杀手(Binder.killsys) 等。
7.脚本病毒
脚本病毒通常是JavaScript 代码编写的恶意代码, 前缀是通常为
Spript, 一般带有广告性质, 会修改您的IE 首页、修改注册表等信息,
造成用户使用计算机不方便。
8.病毒种植程序病毒
这类病毒的公有特性是运行时会从体内释放出一个或几个新的
病毒到系统目录下, 由释放出来的新病毒产生破坏。如冰河播种者
(Dropper.BingHe2.2C) 、MSN 射手(Dropper.Worm.Smibag)等。
9.玩笑病毒
玩笑病毒的前缀是: Joke。也称恶作剧病毒。这类病毒的特性是本身具有好看的图标来诱惑用户点击,
当用户点击这类病毒时, 病毒会做出各种破坏操作来吓唬用户, 其实
病毒并没有对用户电脑进行任何破坏。如: 女鬼( Joke.Girlghost) 病毒。
10.木马黑客病毒
木马病毒其前缀是: Trojan, 黑客病毒前缀名一般为Hack。公有特
性是通过网络或者系统漏洞进入用户的系统并隐藏, 然后向外界泄露
用户信息, 黑客病毒则有一个可视的界面, 能对用户的电脑进行远程
控制。木马、黑客病毒往往是成对出现的, 木马病毒负责侵入用户的电
脑, 而黑客病毒则会通过该木马病毒来进行控制。。一般的木马如QQ
消息尾巴木马Trojan.QQ3344, 还有大Trojan.LMir.PSW.60。病毒名中
有PSW或者什么PWD 之类的一般表示这个病毒有盗取密码的功能,
一些黑客程序如网络枭雄Hack.Nether.Client 等。
B. 跪求一遍关于计算机网络的英语作文..字数在1200以上的..
Computer networks
Now every almost have computers, and computer good does have its downside - it depends on how you use. If you want to ask me: I on the computer do what, I can tell you, I will do a lot of things in the computer. May first and have out-of-town relatives chat, then can check information, listening to music, watching movies, paint... My favorite on the computer music and watching movies, because it very relaxing my mood.But the most people used compter to surf the internet.Now Let us know about the computer network
Ⅰ.Introction
Computer networks,the wide spread sharing of information among groups of computers and their users,are a central part of the information age.The popular adoption of the personal computer(PC)
and the local area network (LAN) ring the 1980s has led to the capacity to access information on a distant database;download an application from overseas;send a message to a friend country;and share files with a colleague-all from a personal computer.
The network that allow all this to be done so easily are sophisticated and complex entities.They rely for their effectiveness on many cooperating computers.The design and deployment of the wordwide computer network can be viewed as one of the great technological wonders of recent decades. Nowadays Intemet is very popular all over the world, especially in some big cities. Do you know when the Intemet was first established? Built in 1960s, the Internet was a crude network of a few computers which shared information. If one of the computers broke down, the whole networks would be unable to work, causing continual problems. At first, just the government had access to the Internet, using it for communications among different branches. However, by 1970s the Internet had been used in universities, banks, and hospitals. At the beginning of 1990s computers became affordable for common people and this affordability increased the use of the Internet by people,It is said that each day tens of millions of people log off, making it the most important part of people's life.
Ⅱ.Local Area Network
One of the most dramatic events in computer networking has been the introction and rapid growth of local area network(LAN) as a way to standardize the system of linking computers used in office systems.As the name suggests,this is a means of connecting a number of computing elements together.At the simplest level,a LAN provides no more more than a shared medium (such as a coaxial cable to which all computers and printers are connected) along with a set of rules that govern the access to that medium.The most widely used LAN,Ethernet,used a mechanism called Carrier Sense Multiple Access-Collosion Detect(CSMA-CD).This means that each connected device can only use the cable when it has established that each connected device is using it.If there is contention, the device looking for a connection backs off and tries again later.The Ethernet transfers data at 10M bits/sec,which is fast enough to make the distance between devices insignificant.They appeat to be connected directly to their destination.
There are many different layouts(such as bus ,star,ring,see Figure 6A-2)and a number of different access protocols for LANs.Despire this variety,all LANs share the feature that they are limited in range (typically they cover one building) and are fast enough to make the connecting network invisible to the devices that use it.
In addition to providing shared access,modern LANs can also give users a wide range of sophisticated facilities.Managenment software packages are available to control the way in which devices are configured on the local area network (LAN),how users are administered,and how network resources are controlled.A widely adopted structure o local network is to have a number of servers that are available to a (usuallu much greater) nember of clients.The former,usually powerful computers,provide service such as print control,file sharing,and mail to the latter,which are usually personal computers.
Ⅲ.Routers and brideges
The facilities on most local area network (LAN) are very powerful.Most organizatonns do not wish to have small isolated islands of computing facilities.They usually want to extend facilities over a wider area so that groups can wok wtthout having to be located.Routers and bridges arespecialized devices that allow two or more local area network (LAN) to be connected.The bridges is the more basic device and can only connect local area network (LAN) of the same type.The router is a more intelligent component that can interconnent many different types of computer network.
Many large companies have corporate adta network that are founded on a collection of local area network (LAN) and routers.From the user’s point of view,this arrangement provides them with a physically diverse network that looks like one coherent resource.
Ⅳ.Wide Area Networks
At some point,it becomes impractical to extend a local area network (LAN) any further.Physical limitation sometimes drives this,but more often than not there are more concenient or cheaper ways to extend a computer network.Two major components in most real computer networks are the public telephone and data networks.These provide long-distance links that extend a local area network (LAN) into a wide area network (WAN).Nearly all of the national network operators offer services for the interconnection of computer networks.These services range from simple, low speed data links that work over the public telephone network to sophisticaied high speed data services that are ideally suited to the interconnection of LANs.These high speed data services are usually referred to as broadband connection.It is anticiopated that they will provide the necessary links between LANs that make what is called the information superhighway a reality.
C. 一段英文翻译（计算机网络方面）
Note: bufer -> buffer
希望我的翻译对你有帮助。
1. link bandwidth .The network has to decide how to apportion bandwidth between different flows,Network routers may also decide to prioritize certain types of packets(e.g. latencysensitive audio or interactive telnet packes) over others (e.g. electronic mail)
1. 链路带宽。 该网络需要决定怎样为不同流量分配带宽，网络路由器也可以用来决定为某种类型的数据包(比如：延迟感应音频或交互远程登录包)
提供在其他(如：电子邮件)之上优先权
2.Queue space .When the router decides that a packet has to be dropped because it is running out of queue space (also known as buffer space ),which packet should it drop?The arriving one?The earliest one?A random one ?And when should it decide to drop packets;only when the queue is full,or sooner than that? Waiting too long to before dropping packets only serves to increase packet delays,and it may be advantageous to drop occasional packets even when the queue isn't full.
2. 队列空间。 当由路由器认为由于一个包运行在队列空间(也称作缓冲空间)之外而需要丢掉时，该丢哪个包呢？ 即将到达的？ 还是到达最早的那个？ 还是随机挑选一个？ 什么时候决定该丢掉它呢，是队列满了的时候，抑或是更早些时候？在丢包前等候太长时间只会增加包延迟，并且有利于随机丢包甚至是队列未满的时候。
What happens if we don't manage network resources well? For one thing, the available bandwidth might end up being greatly under-utilized even when there is demand for it ,causing economic heartburn.Most often ,however,network designers end up provisioning for a certain amount of "expected " offered load,and then have to deal with overload,or congesion.
当我们不能够很好的管理网络资源时，会发生什么？ 一方面，可用带宽可能会不能得到充分利用即使在需要这个带宽时，这会对经济不利. 然而大多时候，网络设计者最终分配一定量的"预期"负载，接着需要做的就是处理过载或堵塞问题了。
D. 帮忙写一篇计算机介绍硬件软件和网络的英语作文
In modern sociey, people who is handicaped in using computer and accessing network are classified as "blinds" naturally. The advantages of captioned facility is significant, the world move much faster than before because of the information exchange and speedy processing of data. You can guess how much business can grow if a spreadsheet need to be calculated using three days instead of one second nowaday, I should say in majority that computers and networking bring much convenience to human life. But there are still dark side of the world. I also observe children that cannot do simple calculation by mind, they have to rely on calculators, a simple form of computer, similar things happen all around us and when time goes by, we are weak in mind manipulation yet also weak in physical because we spent all time around the computer. What a world we are in to say hello to a friend next door by send him email ?
E. 寻人帮忙翻译一段关于计算机网络的英文
计算机网络作为一个很好的基础，当前及未来的网络管理人员和管理员可以建立一个数据通信标准，目前的和新兴的网络技术，坚实的知识基础。读完这本书，您将有累积了更多的了解和对网络和网络赞赏。请注意，这不是一个“如何”的书。我们不提供具体的资料相对于网络管理或配置。引用前教的学生谁是使用这在数据通信和网络课程材料，以前的草案：“这种材料清除了很多东西，为我。它捆绑在一起的十年，我为网络管理员多年来无所适从了。“
F. 高中生英语演讲关于电脑或者网络的（在线等）3分钟
A computer is a machine that manipulates data according to a set of instructions.
Although mechanical examples of computers have existed through much of recorded human history, the first electronic computers were developed in the mid-20th century (1940–1945). These were the size of a large room, consuming as much power as several hundred modern personal computers (PCs). Modern computers based on integrated circuits are millions to billions of times more capable than the early machines, and occupy a fraction of the space. Simple computers are small enough to fit into a wristwatch, and can be powered by a watch battery. Personal computers in their various forms are icons of the Information Age and are what most people think of as "computers". The embedded computers found in many devices from MP3 players to fighter aircraft and from toys to instrial robots are however the most numerous.
The ability to store and execute lists of instructions called programs makes computers extremely versatile, distinguishing them from calculators. The Church–Turing thesis is a mathematical statement of this versatility: any computer with a certain minimum capability is, in principle, capable of performing the same tasks that any other computer can perform. Therefore computers ranging from a mobile phone to a supercomputer are all able to perform the same computational tasks, given enough time and storage capacity.
Programming languages provide various ways of specifying programs for computers to run. Unlike natural languages, programming languages are designed to permit no ambiguity and to be concise. They are purely written languages and are often difficult to read aloud. They are generally either translated into machine code by a compiler or an assembler before being run, or translated directly at run time by an interpreter. Sometimes programs are executed by a hybrid method of the two techniques. There are thousands of different programming languages—some intended to be general purpose, others useful only for highly specialized applications.
Computers have been used to coordinate information between multiple locations since the 1950s. The U.S. military's SAGE system was the first large-scale example of such a system, which led to a number of special-purpose commercial systems like Sabre.
In the 1970s, computer engineers at research institutions throughout the United States began to link their computers together using telecommunications technology. This effort was funded by ARPA (now DARPA), and the computer network that it proced was called the ARPANET. The technologies that made the Arpanet possible spread and evolved.
In time, the network spread beyond academic and military institutions and became known as the Internet. The emergence of networking involved a redefinition of the nature and boundaries of the computer. Computer operating systems and applications were modified to include the ability to define and access the resources of other computers on the network, such as peripheral devices, stored information, and the like, as extensions of the resources of an indivial computer. Initially these facilities were available primarily to people working in high-tech environments, but in the 1990s the spread of applications like e-mail and the World Wide Web, combined with the development of cheap, fast networking technologies like Ethernet and ADSL saw computer networking become almost ubiquitous. In fact, the number of computers that are networked is growing phenomenally. A very large proportion of personal computers regularly connect to the Internet to communicate and receive information. "Wireless" networking, often utilizing mobile phone networks, has meant networking is becoming increasingly ubiquitous even in mobile computing environments.
The need for computers to work well together and to be able to exchange information has spawned the need for many standards organizations, clubs and societies of both a formal and informal nature.
电脑是一台操纵根据指令集的数据。
虽然电脑机械事例，通过记录的人类历史上存在很多，首先开发了电脑在20世纪中期（1940年至45年）。这是一个大房间的大小，功耗一样，数百现代（PC）的个人电脑。关于集成电路的现代计算机的倍比早期的机器能够十亿百万美元，占据空间小部分。简单的电脑足够小，能够装到手表，并且可以通过手表电池供电。在各种形式的个人电脑是信息时代的图标，并且大多数人认为是“电脑”。在嵌入式设备中发现的许多MP3播放器到战斗机，从玩具到工业机器人的电脑但最多。
能够存储并执行指令的列表称为程序使电脑非常多才多艺，他们的区别计算器。教会-图灵论题是这种多功能性的数学声明：任何一个有某些最低限度的能力的电脑上，原则上执行相同的任务，任何其他电脑可以执行的能力。因此，从电脑手机到超级电脑都能够完成同样的计算任务，足够的时间和存储容量。
编程语言提供了指定的电脑程序运行的各种方法。与自然语言，编程语言的目的是不允许任何含糊和精简。它们是纯粹的语言文字，而且往往难以朗读。他们一般都翻译成机器代码编译器或汇编程序运行之前，或翻译，直接在运行时由一名翻译的时间。有时候程序执行的是两种方法混合方法。有许多不同的编程语言成千上万的一些拟通用，其他人只需要高度专业化的应用非常有用。
电脑被用来协调20世纪50年代以来，在多个地点的资料。美国军方的SAGE系统是第一个大规模实施这些制度，这导致了特殊用途的军刀等商业系统的数量规模的例子。
在20世纪70年代，在研究机构的电脑工程师在美国开始他们的计算机连接在一起使用电信技术。这一努力是ARPA的资助（现在DARPA）的，以及计算机网络，它被称为产生了ARPANET。该技术取得了ARPANET可能扩散和演变。
随着时间的推移，以后的学术和军事机构网络化，成为称为电脑互联网。网络的出现，涉及的性质和计算机边界的重新定义。计算机操作系统和应用程序进行了修改，包括能够定义和访问网络上的资源，如其他计算机外围设备，存储的信息，等等，为扩展名的个人电脑上的资源。开始时，这些设施主要是人们可以在高科技环境中工作，但在20世纪90年代申请的蔓延，如电子邮件和万维网，与发展经济结合起来，如以太网和ADSL网络技术的快速看到电脑联网变得几乎无处不在。事实上，该是联网的计算机数量正在飘洋过海。个人电脑的一个非常大的比例，定期连接到互联网来进行交流和接收信息。 “无线”网络，往往利用移动电话网络，意味着网络正在成为即使在移动计算环境日益普及。
对于电脑需要很好地协同工作，并能够交换信息促成了许多标准组织，俱乐部和双方正式和非正式性的社会需要。